Ocean manganese nodules -- small, dark, and round-shaped nodules that contain manganese, nickel, copper, cobalt, and other minerals -- are found along the floor of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The nodules were first discovered on the famous oceanographic Challenger expedition of the 1870s. Steel production requires millions of tons of manganese annually. Though ocean mining for manganese nodules has generated a great deal of interest, several factors have served as obstacles, including the difficult ocean terrain, the high cost, and political and international difficulties relating to its legality.

Similar problems associated with oil and gas exploration have caused international and national debate. While no one knows the exact extent of the oil and gas deposits in the ocean, oceanographers have made important discoveries about these potential reserves. The cost of exploring these sites is high. And, even if oil or gas reserves are found, recovering the resources is not always pursued due to the high cost of developing the site or other reasons. Partnerships between scientists and industry are important in the area of oil and gas exploration; oil companies constantly seek new reserves, while science makes it possible for companies to locate, analyze, and reach the resource. Current production takes place in the oceanic areas of continental margins, such as the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea.